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1.
- (Introduction to the Dialectic/Concepts of Pure Reason) Consider a
hypothetical syllogism of the form:
If all C is D, then all A is B.
But, all C is D.
Therefore, all A is B.
Explain the difference between (1) the unity of the understanding which
allows the concept A to be brought under the concept B and (2) the
unity of reason which allows the judgment All A is B to be explained by
the principle, If all C is D, then all A is B. In particular: explain how
both (1) and (2) involve the unification of the same manifold of possible
cognitions, namely, those falling under the concept A. The purpose of the
unification (1) is to “collect much possible knowledge into one” — that
is, in this case, to allow the predicate concept, B, to be applied at once
to every object of the subject concept, A. So the possible objects of A
are to be united in virtue of their common conformity to the concept A,
and for the purpose of representing them all together as object to B. In
virtue of what, and for what purpose, are the objects of A to be united in
(2)?
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2.
- (Concepts of Pure Reason) In the Transcendental Analytic, it is argued that
the object of experience must be such as to allow the understanding to think
it under concepts. Why would it be wrong to argue, further, that the
object of experience must be such as to allow reason to think the object of
experience under principles? If, nevertheless, we make such a demand, why
does this result in an attempt to think something further through the
categories, which are pure concepts of the understanding? (Hint for both
parts: thinking an object is an act of what faculty?) Finally, why does this
new alleged use of the categories involve applying them transcendently,
that is, using them to think an object which could never be the object of
experience? (Hint: why is any judgment about the object of experience always
conditioned?)
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3.
- (Paralogisms) Consider the syllogism on p. 371 (B410–11). Kant says that it
involves a sophisma figurae dictionis: that is, a fallacy of equivocation. Give
another example of a syllogism which displays this fallacy. Where is the
equivocation in your example? What phrase, then, in Kant’s example, must
contain the term that is being used equivocally? (You should be able to identify
the phrase where the equivocation must be just on the basis of the form of the
syllogism.) Why, based on Kant’s text, might you think that the specific term
used equivocally is “thought”?
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4.
- (Antinomies) According to the Thesis of the Third Antinomy, p. 409
(A444/B472), “it is necessary to assume that there is,” in addition to natural
causality, “also another causality, that of freedom.” Explain how “freedom” is
defined here, and explain why, according to Kant, reason (in its argument for the
Thesis) demands the existence of a “free” cause (in that sense of “free”). On the
other hand, how can we tell, based on the conclusions of the Transcendental
Analytic (in particular, the Second Analogy), that this demand could never be
fulfilled by any object of experience, i.e. that we can never experience anything
which is in that sense “free”? (Note: of course the argument for the Thesis of the
Third Antinomy contains a mistake, according to Kant, since the Antinomy as a
whole, both Thesis and Antithesis, is a product of transcendental illusion, as are
all the Antinomies. So your explanation of “why reason demands” this will
incorporate the mistaken step or steps. The inconsistency of the conclusion with
the Second Analogy will then show why Kant must think there is a mistake
somewhere.)
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5.
- (Solution to the Third Antinomy) Freedom (more precisely: transcendental
freedom) would seem to be inconsistent with determinism, for the following
reason. Suppose I freely choose how to act at time t. If we define “determinism”
as the view that the future is completely determined by the past, then,
according to determinism, whatever happens after t must be completely
determined by what happened long before t (i.e., only one course of future
events can be compatible with that course of past events). Therefore, I
can only choose one way, i.e. can’t choose freely. What would Kant say
about this argument? (Note that this is a contemporary argument which
Kant does not address directly. You can’t answer this question by just
summarizing the Solution to the Third Antinomy; you will need to think
about how Kant would respond to a question that no one actually puts to
him.) (Hint: if I am free, is my free choice something that happens at a
time? Is there more than one way I can choose? What is my “intelligible
character”?)
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6.
- (Ideal) What is (supposed to be) the concept of an ens realissimum? Explain
why, if we really could think something through this concept, it would be an
“ideal,” as Kant defines that term on p. 485 (A568/B596): explain, that is, why it
would be the concept of an individual object. How, according to Kant, is
this supposed concept related to another supposed concept, the concept
of the totality of all possible things? In particular: why does reason’s
(mistaken) demand, that a thing be known as possible by seeing it as
one among all the possible things, i.e. by comparing it to the sum of
all possibilities, end up being a demand that everything be thought by
comparison to the ideal of the ens realissimum? How does the argument
depend on the principle (also mistaken, according to Kant) that realities
cannot oppose each other, i.e. that the only thing opposed to reality is
negation?
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7.
- (Impossibility of the Proofs) Suppose we have an ordinary empirical concept,
C, and we already agree that C represents some possible objects. Call these
possible object of C the (possible) C-things. Suppose now (1) I go on to tell you
that some (possible) C-things are heavy. This involves adding further information
about what is possible: not only is a C-thing possible, but a heavy C-thing is
possible. Suppose, on the other hand, (2) I go on to tell you that some C-things
are actual (i.e., that there actually are some C-things, that the concept C
represents some actual object). How, according to Kant, is (2) different
from (1)? Since we are assuming C is an empirical concept, what am I
adding to the claim that C-things are possible when I say that at least
some are actual? Explain using the example of the 100 thalers (dollars).
(Hint: how must an actual C-thing be related to me? What is the role of
sensation here?) How does this show, in advance, that there will have to be a
problem with any proof in which we first show that God possibly exists,
and then go on, through some further steps, to show that God actually
exists?
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8.
- (Canon) Explain the difference between a pragmatic law and a moral law,
according to Kant. How is each related to happiness? (Explain what “happiness”
means, according to Kant.) Explain further why, given these definition (of moral
law and of happiness), and given that the “supreme good” (more precisely: the
“supreme derivative good,” the “supreme good of a world”) is as Kant describes
on pp. 640–41 (A813–14/B841–2), our only hope for this supreme good would be
to assume that God exists. What is the definition of “God,” as the term is used in
the conclusion of this argument? That is: exactly what is it we need,
which divine attributes, to allow us to hope for the supreme good of the
world?